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Masalah Otoritarianisme dan Ketertinggalan Umat Islam

Lapmi Ciputat by Lapmi Ciputat
May 3, 2021
Masalah Otoritarianisme dan Ketertinggalan Umat Islam
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Judul: Islam, Otoritarianisme, dan Ketertinggalan
Penulis: Ahmet T. Kuru
Penerjemah: Febry Ady Prasetyo
Penerbit: KPG (Kepustakaan Populer Gramedia)
Cetakan: Pertama, Desember 2020
Tebal: xviii + 498 halamam
ISBN: 978-602-481-517-2
Peresensi: Abd. Rasyid

Karya Ahmet T. Kuru (selanjutnya disebut Kuru) yang terbit dalam format bahasa Indonesia setidaknya memberikan alternatif-alternatif baru dalam membahas terkait stigma-stigma yang melekat pada Islam. Buku asal dengan judul Islam, Authoritarianism, and Underdevelopment: A Global and Historical Comparison (2019) tersebut, merupakan elaborasi dari guru besar dan direktur Center for Islamic and Arabic Studies di San Diego University yang mengurai tentang kritikan-kritikannya terhadap adagium-adagium yang mengasosiasikan agama Islam sebagai embrio awal yang menyebabkan negara-negara berpenduduk mayoritas Muslim menunjukkan tingkat otoritarianisme yang relatif tinggi dibandingkan dengan negara-negara lain.
Dalam beberapa dekade terakhir, term “kekerasan”, “kebiadaban”, dan “keanarkisan”, seolah menjadi streotipe yang selalu disangkutpautkan dan diasosiakan dengan Islam. Pengasosiasian tersebut muncul bukan tanpa dasar, rentetan kasus yang terjadi seperti serta serangan teroris yang terstruktur –bom bunuh diri, penyanderaan, dan penembakan massal– yang terjadi di kota Paris dan Saint-Denis di Perancis pada November 2015 silam, selalu mengatasnamakan Islam, atau lebih tepatnya Islamic State of Iraq and Syiria (ISIS). Kasus tersebut setidaknya menjadi stimulasi awal dan alasan kewajaran streotipe atau konotasi negatif di atas selalu melekat pada Islam. Namun akan terkesan riskan dan terlalu simplistis untuk menyatakan bahwa ajaran Islam yang selalu mengajarkan dan menganjurkan kepada pengikutnya untuk bertindak secara keras. Faktanya, tidak semua penganut Islam bertindak dengan cara yang demikian. Artinya rentetan kasus di atas hanya diinisiasi oleh beberapa atau bahkan segelintir orang saja.

Menelaah Ungkapan, “Berbukalah Dengan Yang Manis-Manis”

Penyebab Ketertinggalan
Selain kritikin di atas, terdapat poin lain yang turut diamplifikasikan oleh Kuru sebagai antitesa terhadap tesis interpretasi orang-orang Barat yang mengkonotasikan Islam sebagai penyebab utama umat Muslim tertinggal, dibayang-bayangi dengan tindakan kekerasan, dan budaya otoritarianisme.
Hal lain tersebut adalah, ia berusaha untuk merekonstruksikan argumen bahwa kolonialisme menjadi menjadi salah satu dari sekian banyak penyebab ketertinggalan umat Islam. Kuru mengutip argumen Frantz Fanon yang menyatakan bahwa penjajahan yang dilakukan oleh Perancis terhadap Aljazair tidak banyak memberikan opsi bagi masyarakat di Aljazair selain mengambil langkah tegas untuk melawan (hal. 27).

Invasi atau “kolonialisme” yang digencarkan oleh pihak Barat terhadap negara yang mayoritas berpenduduk Muslim, bahkan boleh disebut Indonesia masuk dalam kubangan invasi tersebut. Invasi itulah yang kemudian menstimulasi perlawanan dari pihak Muslim dengan menggunakan alternatif lajur “kekerasan” untuk dapat membebaskan diri dan mendapatkan kembali harkat-martabat kemanusiaan mereka. Terdapat jutaan orang terbunuh dalam kekejaman bersejarah yang diinisiasi oleh pelbagai kelompok yang mengatasnamakan etnis, suku, ras, atau atas nama negara; mulai dari pembantaian yang dilakukan oleh bangsa Mongol, pemberontakan Taiping dan Dungan di Tiongkok hingga meletusnya dua perang dunia (hal.35-36).

Menurut Kuru, kekerasan –apapun itu bentuknya – merupakan kejadian yang tidak hanya disebabkan oleh satu faktor saja, artinya banyak faktor penyebab yang turut menjadi suksesi dari kekerasan itu sendiri. Dalam konteks kekerasan agama misalnya. Teks-teks yang ada dalam kitab suci tidak bisa dijadikan sebagai dalih pengambing-hitaman atas segala kekerasan yang terjadi. Lagi pula, teks tersebut memiliki multi-tafsir dan multi-interpretasi, yang menyesuaikan dengan pemahaman interpretatornya.
Intinya, ketika membahas terkait kekerasan, Kuru mengangkat dua poin yang dinilainya memiliki peran signifikan dalam masalah kekerasan yang terjadi diinternal Islam itu sendiri. Pertama, seperti telah dijelaskan di muka, adalah terkait dengan penafsiran tertentu tentang Islam, Jihadi-Salafisme, yang kemudian berkonsekuensi kepada pemahaman bahwa ayat-ayat al-Qur’an lebih memberikan nilai surplus pada tindakan-tindakan represif ketimbang tindakan persuasif (hal. 402). Kedua, minimnya kalangan intelktual Muslim pasif-persuasif (quietist) dalam membuat argumen tandingan terhadap kelompok Jihadi Salafi yang dianggap lebih aktif-represif. Sehingga meskipun kelompok puritan tersebut kalah jumlah, tetapi ajaran yang mereka bawa seolah lebih argumentatif dan memiliki legitimasi yang cukup kuat.

Faktor lain yang dicatat oleh Kuru adalah hegemoni yang dilakukan beberapa kalangan ulama, terutama terkait tentang penafsiran terhadap hukum-hukum Islam. Atau dalam istilahnya, Kuru menyebut ajaran yang diamplifikasikan oleh ulama-ulama kontemporer dalam mengajarkan sesuatu, umumnya berorientasi untuk melindungi “tradisi Islam” ketimbang menghasilkan perspektif Islam yang baru (hal.40).
Secara tidak langsung, jaringan ulama-ulama tersebut kemudian menginisiasi syarat ijtihad (membuat gagasan baru) dengan kualifikasi yang sangat kompleks, yang kemudian berdampak pada hilangnya kreativitas dan inovasi para penerus mereka. Jalan satu-satunya yang bisa ditempuh oleh mereka adalah merawat dan meneruskan tradisi Islam abad pertengahan ketimbang memproduksi perspektif Islam dengan metodologi yang lebih baru. Kuru menampilkan survei Pew Research Center 2013 yang menjelaskan persentasi yang sangat tinggi di negara-negara Muslim di Afrika, Timur Tengah, Asia Selatan dan Asia Tenggara yang mendukung hukuman mati bagi orang yang dengan sengaja keluar dari Islam (murtad) dan lebih mendukung terhadap penerapan syariah yang diproduksi dari pemikiran ulama abad pertengahan.
Jika ada ulama atau sarjana Muslim baru, kemudian mengajukan tesis atau argunentasi yang berbeda dengan yang telah mereka ajarkan, maka tanpa banyak pertimbangan, para ulama tersebut akan memusuhi bahkan dengan sengaja menghukum mereka. Para ulama itu, selama berabad-abad, juga “mengunci” beberapa doktrin Islam yang pokok hanya untuk satu arti (pemahaman) tunggal; tidak boleh diinterpretasikan dengan argumen lain. Padahal Al-Qur’an dalam banyak ayat-ayatnya sangat membuka ruang untuk kemungkinan pemahaman lain, tetapi ketika para ulama sudah membatasi sekaligus mengunci jalan tersebut, maka ayat al-Qur’an yang awalnya bersifat multi-interpretasi tersebut akan segera eksklusif dengan sendirinya. Konservatisme religius yang diinisiasi oleh para ulama inilah, yang dalam pandangan Kuru dan sebagian besar sarjana Muslim modern lain, yang menjadi alasan utama mengapa pemikiran Muslim menjadi stagnan, statis, dan mengalami kejumudan selama berabad-abad. Dampak lanjutannya, masyarakat Muslim belum bisa bersikap “cukup umur”, dinamis dan fleksibel secara intelektual untuk mengasilkan argumentasi tandingan terhadap propaganda argumen yang dibangun oleh kalangan-kalangan puritanis (hal.48).
Pada bagian yang lain, Kuru juga mengatakan romantisme hubungan antara ulama dan negara juga turut berperan dan bertanggung jawab atas terjadinya permasalahan utama dunia Muslim, yang menyebabkan dunia Muslim mengalami ketertinggalan serta menguatkan sendi-sendi otoriterisme. Jadi, meskipun Kuru tidak membantah secara eksplisit dampak negatif dari kolonialisme Barat, akan tetapi fakta yang bisa dilihat sekarang adalah kemunduran dunia Muslim memang sudah terjadi sejak dahulu, atau lebih tepatnya pada abad ke-11.

Gelar Seminar, Yayasan Ayo Mengajar Indonesia Ajak pakar lawan Intoleransi, Radikalisme, dan Terorisme di Dunia Pendidikan

Faktor selanjutnya yang disebut oleh Kuru turut bertanggung-jawab dalam kemunduran serta tumbuh-kembangnya Islam adalah karena “otoritarianisme negara”. Dari sekian banyak negara yang mayoritas penduduknya Muslim, kebanyakan atau bahkan rata-rata dari mereka baru meraih kemerdekaanya. Mereka mendapat kemerdekaan dari kolonialisme pada pertengahan abad ke-20, dan ketika membentuk negara, baik berbentuk Republik atau Kerajaan, banyak yang jatuh menjadi “rezim otoriter”. Dalam sepanjang sejarahnya, Kuru menuturkan bahwa otoritarianisme pada negeri-negeri Muslim, apakah sistem negara mereka sekuler, Republik atau Islami ternyata melahirkan banyak konflik sipil, bahkan berujung pada tindakan terorisme.
Dari ketiga faktor di atas, tentu saja, ada banyak bentuk-bentuk lain yang dapat mengelaborasi terkait pertanyaan mengapa kaum Muslim sepanjang dua abad terakhir selalu tertinggal, kurang damai, kurang demokratis serta berada jauh di bawah negeri-negeri lain yang sudah melesat dan lebih maju. Ahmet T. Kuru hanya ingin berfokus pada ketiga faktor di atas: konservatisme religius yang dilakukan oleh elit Islam, otoritarianisme, dan radikalisme. Ketiga faktor inilah yang dengan segala konsekuensi logisnya dapat berakibat dan menyebabkan kaum Muslim sulit dalam mengembangkan pendidikan yang kaya akan metodologi, kreativitas dan nalar yang lebih inklusif, keberanian untuk menyampaikan argumen, penerimaan terhadap realitas yang heterogen dan seterusnya.
Sebagai langkah solutifnya, banyak preskripsi yang dapat ditempuh untuk mengakhiri problem turun-temurun; kekerasan, otoritarianisme, dan ketertinggalan di dunia Muslim. Preskripsi tersebut adalah hanya bisa ditempuh dengan satu cara, yaitu menumbuhsuburkan lahirnya kaum intelektual yang kaya perspektif, metodologi, dan memiliki kreativitas serta keahlian yang kompeten dalam segala bidangnya. Ketika kaum intelektual tersebut telah lahir dan tersebar disegala tempat, maka kekuasaan serta romantisme hubungan antara ulama dan otoritas negara yang menyebabkan dunia Islam tertinggal akan segera lenyap dan hilang dengan sendirinya.

Abd. Rasyid (Peresensi adalah kader aktif Lapmi dan Khalifah PIUSH) 

Lapmi Ciputat

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